Important Recent Research Findings Regarding Divorce

Important Research Findings Regarding Divorce:

Bauserman, Robert, Child Adjustment in Joint-Custody Versus Sole-Custody Arrangements: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Family Psychology. 16(1), Mar 2002, 91-102.

The author meta-analyzed studies comparing child adjustment in joint physical or joint legal custody with sole-custody settings, including comparisons with paternal custody and intact families where possible. Distinctions between joint physical and joint legal custody were not made in many of the studies included in the meta-analysis. Youngster's in joint physical or legal custody were better adjusted than children in sole-custody settings, but no different from those in intact families. More positive adjustment of joint-custody children held for separate comparisons of general adjustment, family relationships, self-esteem, emotional and behavioral adjustment, and divorce-specific adjustment. Joint-custody parents reported less current and past conflict than did sole-custody parents, but this did not explain the better adjustment of joint-custody children. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that joint custody can be advantageous for children in some cases, possibly by facilitating ongoing positive involvement with both parents.

Hyatt, Kaye, Children's Adjustment to Divorce Largely in Hands of Parents, with One Exception: Dad's Departure Depresses Boys. Journal of Marriage and the Family

The author summarizes findings from an ongoing 10 year longitudinal study funded by NIMH of 600 families . Some of the more important findings included: (1) Regardless of family structure, girls are more likely to experience depression and boys to show conduct problems. (2) divorce increases a boy's chances of becoming depressed, regardless of other mediating conditions. "Even when those parents remain involved and supportive, boys often become depressed due to the departure of their father from the home". (3) The research examined all the major explanations for the association between divorce and child developmental problems: loss of family income, parental conflict, psychological adjustment and parenting practices of the custodial parent (most typically the mother), and involvement of the non-custodial father. Previous studies have considered only one of two of these more popular theories. Researchers focused on two dimensions of child adjustment: whether they externalized problems, manifested by aggressive or delinquent behavior, or internalized their concerns, resulting in emotional distress and depression. (4) Children of divorce are at risk for adjustment problems because their parents are less likely to engage in competent, consistent parenting and are more likely to engage in conflict exchanges than parents who are married to each other. (5) Divorce, with its emotional turmoil, time demands and often financial stress increases the custodial mother's own chances of becoming depressed, which in turn tends to disrupt the quality of her parenting, Simons explains. This, in turn, increases the child's risk for adjustment problems. (6) Data also show that being a non-residential parent is often a confusing role for fathers, who too often relinquish their parenting role and form a more buddy-type relationship with the children. Compared to fathers in intact families, the divorced, non-residential dads were less likely to help their children solve problems, discuss standards of conduct or enforce discipline, increasing the probability that boys would display conduct problems. "It is essential, especially for sons, that fathers continue to function as a parent," Simons emphasizes. "Simply showing the kids a good time and being a pal doesn't make any difference in terms of developmental outcomes for kids." (7) Quality of the custodial mother's parenting was the only factor that was related to both internalizing and externalizing problems of children. Findings indicate that quality of mother's parenting reduces much of the association between divorce and adjustment for both boys and girls. The quality of the custodial mother's parenting and the father's involvement in parenting are key indicators in boys' externalizing problems, while mother's parenting and post-divorce conflict increase girls' risk of adverse behavior. (8) The quality of father's parenting has little effect on the association between divorce and girls' antisocial behavior. Mom's parenting is the most consequential factor. (9) Active engagement in the role of parent, not simply contact, by the non-custodial father substantially reduces the probability that boys will display conduct problems. (10) Parental divorce is more emotionally disturbing to boys than to girls. Boys in divorced families experience higher rates of depression than those in intact families, even when their mothers show positive psychological adjustment and practice competent parenting. Past research has shown that divorce can contribute to adverse behavior such as lower achievement in school, early entry into sexual activity, delinquency and substance abuse, by both boys and girls.

Stanley, S. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2002). The Effects of Divorce on Children. Couples Research and Therapy Newsletter (AABT-SIG), 8 (1), 7-10.

The authors summarize some of the outcomes of divorce. Included were: (1) While 10% of children from intact homes had serious behavioral problems, roughly 30% of the children from divorced homes show such problems (Hetherington, 1993). (2) As adults, 18% of children of divorce scored above a key cutoff on Rutter’s index of mental health compared to 13.7% of those with intact parental marriages (Cherlin, Chase-Lansdale, & McRae, 1998). Cherlin concluded that 82% of children whose parents divorce will not experience lasting difficulties, though many will experience shorter term disruptions and problems in the two years post parental divorce. (3) Level of parental conflict is a key determinant of the effects of parental divorce on children. Children of parents who engage in regular, high levels of conflict tend to do better psychologically and socially if their parents divorce. (4) Children of parents in low conflict, but unsatisfying marriages, are likely to do better if their parents remain together (Amato & Booth, 1997), and somewhere between 50 to 70% of divorces occur in low conflict marriages. (5) Overall, the negative effects of both divorce and inter-parental conflict (without divorce) influence both boys and girls and all age groups. (6) Divorce increases the risks of depression for boys, regardless of mediating factors, due to the common scenario of the father leaving the home. Non-custodial fathers are less likely to discipline effectively and train their children, and have significantly less contact with their children, which may more adversely affect boys. (7) When one partner is a child of divorce, the chances of a couple divorcing are doubled. When both partners are children of divorce, the chances of the couple divorcing are nearly tripled. There is evidence that these effects are linked to factors such as parental modeling, lower educational attainment, lowered stigma about divorce, and lower age at marriage (Glenn & Kramer, 1987). (8) 70% of children from divorced families see divorce as an acceptable solution to an unhappy marriage, even when children are present, compared to 40% of children of from intact families (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). (9) The relationships between children and their fathers are more often negatively impacted by divorce, with 70% reporting poor relationships with fathers compared to only 30% for children from intact families (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). (10) Children of divorce have lower levels of educational, occupational, and financial attainment—findings more attributable to changes in family structure than pre-existing differences in families (e.g., McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). (11) Although most children of divorce do not manifest dysfunction, the relative risk for increased negative outcomes appears to be in the neighborhood of 2 to 3 times the comparable risk for children from intact homes for a number of important outcomes. (12) While children are not, on average, doomed by parental divorce, the effects can be substantial for a small minority when it comes to measurable dysfunction. Moreover, even if the outcome for a child of divorce is not outright clinical dysfunction, more common outcomes such as “distress,” reduced opportunity for education and financial attainment, or a greater likelihood of having a difficult relationship with the father remain concerning because of the large number of children affected by the increased risks. This raises the issue of what can parents who divorce do to help their children cope? (a) Continue effective, involved parenting, and avoid hostile interchanges. (b) Realize that the greatest negative effects occur in the two years following the divorce, especially for boys. This is the period of greatest disorganization for the children. More support, contact, and structure during this time when it may be most difficult to provide all three can likely mitigate some of the negative effects.

Kaufman, j. & Zigler, E., (1986). Do Abused Children Become Abusive Parents? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 57(2) 186-192.

The authors reviewed and critiqued studies assessing the risk of an abusive parent abusing their children. They found that the estimates for intergenerational abuse ranged from 18% to 70%. They concluded from their analysis that the best estimate of intergenerational abuse appears to be about 30% ± 5%. This is six times the estimated rate of 5% for the general population. From their estimates, they concluded that the majority of parents who were abused did not abuse their children. The question of what factors caused abused parents to maltreat their children was not answered.

Kelly, J. (1988), Longer-Term Adjustment in Children of Divorce: Converging Findings and Implications for Practice. Journal of Family Psychology, 2(2), 119-139.

Some salient conclusions from Kelly’s work:

Parental separation is a crisis for most children.
The most acute response to the separation is within the first 6 months and will usually diminish after a year.
Children in divorced families when compared to intact families will experience a greater number of social, academic, and psychological adjustment problems.
Boys in divorced homes were more aggressive and acted out more frequently than boys from intact homes.
When there was less parental conflict after the divorce, children reported that this was a positive benefit from the divorce.
Predictable and frequent contacts with the non-custodial parent have been repeatedly shown to relate to the children's positive adjustment unless the father was poorly adjusted or immature. This is particularly true when the custodial parent approves of the contacts. This is also truer with boys than girls.
The standard visitation schedule of alternating weekends with father cause intense dissatisfaction among children, especially young boys.
The mother's satisfaction with the father was a predictor of a better adjustment for both boys and girls.
Custodial mothers have more problems with discipline than fathers do.
Children's adjustment is adversely affected when there is high conflict between parents.
Children in the custody of the same sex parent adjusted better than living with the opposite sex parent.
Joint custody (legal, not necessarily physical) had a more positive outcome for children. Fathers were more satisfied than mothers with this arrangement.
Fathers paid support more regularly when they had joint rather than sole custody.

Emery, R. (1988). Children in the Divorce Process. Journal of Family Psychology, 2(2), 141-144.

Emery responded and elaborated on the research conducted by Kelly (1988). He made the point that a divorce per se is not strongly linked to a child's overall adjustment but instead is influenced more by the family process before, during and after the separation. He further stated that physical (50/50) joint custody is unrealistic and that most parents favor legal joint custody where the children continue to reside most of the time in a single home.

Kids of Divorce Lag Behind Peers in Math & Social Skills; More Likely to Struggle w/ Anxiety, Loneliness, Low Self-Esteem, & Sadness (2011)

The American Sociological Association (ASA) issued the following news release (2011) about a study in the new issue of American Sociological Review:

Children of Divorce Lag Behind Peers in Math and Social Skills

They Are Also More Likely to Struggle with Anxiety, Loneliness, Low Self-Esteem, and Sadness.

Children whose parents get divorced generally don't experience detrimental setbacks in the pre-divorce period, but often fall behind their peers--and don't catch up--when it comes to math and interpersonal social skills after their parents begin the divorce process, according to a new study.

In addition, the study, which appears in the June issue of the American Sociological Review, finds that children of divorce are more likely to struggle with anxiety, loneliness, low self-esteem, and sadness.

This increase in "internalizing problem behaviors" also begins during the divorce process and does not dissipate.

"People tend to think that couples go through intense marital conflict before they decide to divorce," said study author Hyun Sik Kim, a PhD candidate in sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

"My original prediction was that children of divorce would experience negative impacts even before formal divorce processes began. But, my study finds that this is not the case."

Instead, Kim finds that children begin experiencing developmental problems after their parents commence the divorce process, and these issues continue to plague them even after the divorce is finalized. Interestingly, these problems neither worsen nor improve following the divorce.

"This study reveals that these negative impacts do not worsen in the post-divorce stage, although there is no sign that children of divorce catch up with their counterparts either," Kim said.

Relying on nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class 1998 to 1999, the study traces the development of 3,585 kids from the time they entered kindergarten in the fall of 1998 through fifth grade, and compares children of divorce with kids from intact families.

A unique feature of the study is that it focuses on divorces that occur when children are between first and third grade, which enables Kim to examine the effects of divorce during three separate stages: pre-divorce (kindergarten to first grade), during-divorce (first to third grade), and post-divorce (third to fifth grade).

According to Kim, there are many reasons why children whose parents are divorced or in the process of getting divorced would experience developmental setbacks.

These factors may include stress that children experience as result of seeing their parents blaming each other for the divorce or arguing about custody; an unstable living situation in which children are shuttled between parents or forced to move to another region with a parent who receives primary or sole custody, thus disrupting the children's social network; economic hardship due to a sudden drop in family income; and residual effects of a parent's divorce related depression, Kim said.

"Having one's parents go through a divorce can be very unsettling for a child," Kim said.

While the study finds that divorce has adverse effects on children's math test scores, interpersonal social skills, and internalizing problem behaviors, in general, children of divorce don't experience negative impacts on their reading scores or "externalizing problem behaviors," which indicates how often they do such things as argue, fight, or get angry.